Determinants of consent to personal data surveillance: Experimental evidence from Russia

Мария Родионова; Евгений Седашов; Антон Сизов; Вадим Егоров

Мария Родионова Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики», НИУ ВШЭ
Евгений Седашов Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики», НИУ ВШЭ
Антон Сизов Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики», НИУ ВШЭ
Вадим Егоров Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики», НИУ ВШЭ

Аннотация

Rapid development of surveillance technologies is one of the most socially important consequences of the digital age. This paper investigates the factors determining consent to surveillance of various types of personal data and contributes to rapidly growing research on citizens’ perceptions of surveillance practices. Relying on a comprehensive survey experiment, we study the effects of data types, the identity of surveillance agents, the transparency of surveillance, its imposition and benefits on participants’ consent to data surveillance. Our findings indicate that data types are associated with different levels of consent. The identity of the surveillance agent also matters, as participants are more inclined to trust this function to a state rather than to non-state entities. Imposition and transparency of surveillance, on the other hand, do not affect consent, while the effect of explicit benefits is surprisingly minimal. Overall, the empirical results indicate that the data type and the identity of the surveillant are pivotal characteristics that shape attitudes to surveillance, with other attributes of surveillance technology being almost irrelevant.

Скачивания

Данные скачивания пока не доступны.

Литература

Abdelkader, A. (2015). A Manifest of Barriers to Successful E-Government: Cases from the Egyptian Programme. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 6(1), 169–186. https://www.ijbssnet.com/journal/index/3029.

Acquisti, A., Adjerid, I., Balebako, R., Brandimarte, L., Cranor, L. F., Komanduri, S., Leon, P. G., Sadeh, N., Schaub, F., Sleeper, M., Wang, Y., & Wilson, S. (2017). Nudges for privacy and security: Understanding and assisting users’ choices online. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 50(3), 1–41. doi: 10.1145/3054926.

Adeyeye, A. O. (2024). Public attitudes towards surveillance and privacy of personal communications in 34 African countries. Telematics and Informatics, 102147. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2024.102147.

Altmann, S., Milsom, L., Zillessen, H., Blasone, R., Gerdon, F., Bach, R., ... & Abeler, J. (2020). Acceptability of app-based contact tracing for COVID-19: Cross-country survey study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 8(8), e19857. doi: 10.2196/19857.

Altman, I. (1975). Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, and Crowding. Brooks/Cole, Monterey.

Andrejevic, M. & Gates, K. (2014). ‘Big Data Surveillance: Introduction’. Surveillance & Society, 12(2), 185–196. doi: 10.24908/ss.v12i2.5242.

Antoine, L. (2023). Costs, Inconvenience, or Civil Rights? Investigating Determinants of Public Support for Surveillance. Surveillance & Society, 21(4), 409–431. doi: 10.24908/ss.v21i4.15796.

Bauman, Z. (1988). Freedom. Milton Keynes; Open University Press.

Bauman, Z., Bigo, D., Esteves, P., Guild, E., Jabri, V., Lyon, D., & Walker, R. B. (2014). After Snowden: Rethinking the impact of surveillance. International political sociology, 8(2), 121–144. doi: 10.1111/ips.12048.

Belen-Saglam, R., Nurse, J. R., & Hodges, D. (2022). An investigation into the sensitivity of personal information and implications for disclosure: A UK perspective. Frontiers in Computer Science, 4, 908245. doi: 10.3389/fcomp.2022.908245.

Belfrage, S., Helgesson, G., & Lynøe, N. (2022). Trust and digital privacy in healthcare: a cross-sectional descriptive study of trust and attitudes towards uses of electronic health data among the general public in Sweden. BMC medical ethics, 23(1), 19. doi: 10.1186/s12910-022-00758-z.

Bennett, C. J. & Lyon, D. (2019). Data-driven elections: Implications and challenges for democratic societies. Internet Policy Review, 8(4). doi: 10.14763/2019.4.1433.

Beraja, M., Kao, A., Yang, D., & Yuchtman, N. (2023). “AI-tocracy.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 138(3), 1349–1402. https://ideas.repec.org/a/oup/qjecon/v138y2023i3p1349-1402..html

Brin, D. (1998). The Transparent Society: Will Technology Force Us to Choose between Privacy and Freedom? Perseus Book Group, Cambridge, MA.

Budak, J., Rajh E., & Anić, I-D. (2015). Privacy Concern in Western Balkan Countries: Developing a Typology of Citizens. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 17(1), 29–48. doi: 10.1080/19448953.2014.990278.

Cenfetelli, R. T. & Schwarz, A. (2011). Identifying and Testing the Inhibitors of Technology Usage Intentions. Information Systems Research, 22(4), 808–823. doi: 10.1287/isre.1100.0295.

Chan, F. K., Thong J. Y., Venkatesh V., Brown S. A., Hu P. J., Tam K. Y. (2010). Modeling Citizen Satisfaction with Mandatory Adoption of an E-Government Technology. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 11(10), 519–549. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1976951.

Chmel, K., Marques, I., Mironyuk, M., Rosenberg, D., & Turobov, A. (2021). Privacy Versus Security in Trying Times: Evidence from Russian Public Opinion. Higher School of Economics Research Paper No. WP BRP 82/PS/2021. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3975380

Chua, H. N., Ooi, J. S., & Herbland, A. (2021). The effects of different personal data categories on information privacy concern and disclosure. Computers & Security, 110, 102453. doi: 10.1016/j.cose.2021.102453.

Clarke, R. (1997). Introduction to dataveillance and information privacy, and definitions of terms. Canberra: Xamax Consultancy. http://www.rogerclarke.com/DV/Intro.html.

Clarke, R. (1988). Information technology and dataveillance. Communications of the ACM, 31(5), 498–512. doi: 10.1145/42411.42413.

Cohrs, J. C., Kielmann, S., Maes, J., & Moschner, B. (2005). Effects of right‐wing authoritarianism and threat from terrorism on restriction of civil liberties. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 5(1), 263–276. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-2415.2005.00071.x.

Culnan, M. J., & Armstrong, P. K. (1999). Information privacy concerns, procedural fairness, and impersonal trust: An empirical investigation. Organization science, 10(1), 104–115. doi: 10.1287/orsc.10.1.104.

Darmody, A., & Zwick, D. (2020). Manipulate to empower: Hyper-relevance and the contradictions of marketing in the age of surveillance capitalism. Big Data & Society, 7(1). doi: 10.1177/2053951720904112.

Davis, D. & Silver, B. (2004). Civil Liberties vs. Security: Public Opinion in the Context of the Terrorist Attacks on America. American Journal of Political Science, 48, 28–46. doi: 10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00054.x.

Debatin, B., Lovejoy, J. P., Horn, A. K., & Hughes, B. N. (2009). Facebook and online privacy: Attitudes, behaviors, and unintended consequences. Journal of computer-mediated communication, 15(1), 83–108. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01494.x.

Demertzis, N., Mandenaki, K., & Tsekeris, C. (2021). Privacy attitudes and behaviors in the age of post-privacy: An empirical approach. Journal of Digital Social Research, 3(1), 119–152. doi: 10.33621/jdsr.v3i1.75.

Dinev, T. & Hart, P. (2006). An extended privacy calculus model for e-commerce transactions. Information Systems Research, 17(1), 61–80. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23015781

Dinev, T., Albano, V., Xu, H., D’Atri, A., & Hart, P. (2016). Individuals’ attitudes towards electronic health records: A privacy calculus perspective. In Advances in healthcare informatics and analytics, 19–50. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-23294-2_2.

Dinev, T., Hart, P., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Internet privacy concerns and beliefs about government surveillance – an empirical investigation. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 17(3), 214–233.

Dinev, T., Xu, H., Smith, J. H., & Hart, P. (2013). Information privacy and correlates: an empirical attempt to bridge and distinguish privacy-related concepts. European Journal of Information Systems, 22(3), 295–316. doi: 10.1016/j.jsis.2007.09.002.

Ejdys, J., Ginevicius R., Rozsa Z., Janoskova K. (2019). The Role of Perceived Risk and Security Level in Building Trust in E-Government Solutions. Ekonomie A Management, 21(3). http://hdl.handle.net/11025/35663.

Ermoshina, K., Loveluck, B., & Musiani, F. (2021). A market of black boxes: The political economy of Internet surveillance and censorship in Russia. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 19(1), 18–33. doi: 10.1080/19331681.2021.1905972.

European Social Survey (n. d.) Source Questionnaire. Available at: www.europeansocialsurvey.org/methodology/ess_methodology/source_questionnaire.

Feldstein, S. (2019). “The road to digital unfreedom: How artificial intelligence is reshaping repression.” Journal of Democracy, 30(1), 40–52. doi: 10.24923/2305-8757.2021-5.4.

Finn, R. L., Wright, D., & Friedewald, M. (2013). Seven Types of Privacy. S. Gutwirth et al. (eds.) European Data Protection: Coming of Age, 3–32. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-5170-5_1.

Friedewald, M., van Lieshout, M., Rung, S., & Ooms, M. (2016). The context-dependence of citizens’ attitudes and preferences regarding privacy and security. Data protection on the move: Current developments in ICT and privacy/data protection, 51–74. doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-7376-8_3.

Furini, M., & Tamanini, V. (2015). Location privacy and public metadata in social media platforms: attitudes, behaviors and opinions. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 74, 9795–9825. doi: 10.1007/s11042-014-2151-7.

Furnham, A. & Swami, V. (2019). Attitudes toward surveillance: personality, belief and value correlates. Psychology, 10, 609–623. doi: 10.4236/psych.2019.105039.

Gandy, Jr., O. H. (1996). Coming to Terms with the Panoptic Sort. In Oscar H. Gandy Jr. Computers, surveillance, and privacy, 132–156.

Giroux, H. A. (2014). Totalitarian Paranoia in the Post-Orwellian Surveillance State. Cultural Studies, 29(2), 108–140. doi: 10.1080/09502386.2014.917118.

Goold, B. J. (2010). ‘How Much Surveillance is Too Much? Some Thoughts on Surveillance, Democracy, and the Political Value of Privacy’, in D.W. Schartum (ed.) Overvåking i en rettsstat. Bergen: Fagbokforlaget, 38–48. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1876069.

Goffman, E. (1966). Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings. New York: The Free Press.

Graeber, D., Schmidt-Petri C., & Schroder C. (2021). Attitudes on voluntary and mandatory vaccination against COVID-19: Evidence from Germany. PLoS ONE, 16(5), e0248372. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248372.

Graham, S., & Wood, D. (2003). Digitizing Surveillance: Categorization, Space, Inequality. Critical Social Policy, 23(2), 227–248. doi: 10.1177/0261018303023002006.

Grigorieva, N. S., Demkina, A. E., & Korobeynikova, A. N. (2024). Digitalization in the Russian healthcare: Barriers to digital maturity. Population & Economics, 8(1). doi: 10.3897/popecon.8.e111793.

Gurinskaya, A. (2020). Predicting citizens’ support for surveillance cameras. Does police legitimacy matter? International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(1–2), 63–83. doi: 10.1080/01924036.2020.1744027.

Gurinskaya, A. (2020). Young Citizens Attitudes Towards CCTV and Online Surveillance in Russia. In: Alexandrov, D.A., Boukhanovsky, A.V., Chugunov, A.V., Kabanov, Y., Koltsova, O., Musabirov, I. (eds) Digital Transformation and Global Society. DTGS 2020. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 1242. Springer, Cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-65218-0_5.

Gurova, O., & Morozova, D. (2021). Digitalization of consumption in Russia: Online platforms, regulations and consumer behavior. In: The Palgrave handbook of digital Russia studies, 221–240. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_13.

Haggerty, K. D., & Ericson R. V. (2000). The surveillant assemblage. British Journal of Sociology, 51(4): 605–622. doi: 10.1080/00071310020015280.

Harper, D. J., Ellis, D., & Tucker, I. (2022). Covert aspects of surveillance and the ethical issues they raise. Ethical Issues in Covert, Security and Surveillance Research Advances in Research Ethics and Integrity, 35(2), 177–197. doi: 10.1108/S2398-601820210000008013.

Hayes, B. (2012). The surveillance-industrial complex. In Routledge handbook of surveillance studies (pp. 167-175). Routledge.

Ioannou, A., & Tussyadiah, I. (2021). Privacy and surveillance attitudes during health crises: Acceptance of surveillance and privacy protection behaviours. Technology in Society, 67, 101774. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101774.

Jansson, A. (2012). Perceptions of surveillance: reflexivity and trust in a mediatized world (the case of Sweden). European Journal of Communication, 27(4): 410–427. doi: 10.1177/0267323112463306.

Jayasinghe, K., Jayasinghe, T., Wijethilake, C., & Adhikari, P. (2021). Bio-politics and calculative technologies in COVID-19 governance: Reflections from England. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 11(10), 2189. doi: 10.34172/IJHPM.2021.134.

Kalmus, V., Bolin, G., & Figueiras, R. (2022). Who is afraid of dataveillance? Attitudes toward online surveillance in a cross-cultural and generational perspective. New Media & Society, 26(9), 5291–5313. doi: 10.1177/14614448221134493.

Karpa, D., & Rochlitz, M. (2024). Authoritarian Surveillance and Public Support for Digital Governance Solutions. Comparative Political Studies, Online First. doi: 10.1177/00104140241290208.

Kaster, S. D., & Ensign, P. C. (2023). Privatized espionage: NSO Group Technologies and its Pegasus spyware. Thunderbird International Business Review, 65(3), 355–364. doi: 10.1002/tie.22321.

Kesan, J. P., Hayes, C. M., & Bashir, M. N. (2016). A comprehensive empirical study of data privacy, trust, and consumer autonomy. Indiana Law Journal, 91(2): 267–352. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2576346.

Kitchin, R. (2020). Civil liberties or public health, or civil liberties and public health? Using surveillance technologies to tackle the spread of COVID-19. Space and Polity, 24(3), 362–381. doi: 10.1080/13562576.2020.1770587.

Königs, P. (2022). Government Surveillance, Privacy, and Legitimacy. Philosophy & Technology, 35(1), 1–22. doi: 10.1007/s13347-022-00503-9.

Königs, P. (2024). In Defense of ‘Surveillance Capitalism’. Philosophy & Technology, 37(4), 1–33. doi: 10.1007/s13347-024-00804-1.

Kolozaridi, P., & Muravyov, D. (2021). Contextualizing sovereignty: A critical review of competing explanations of the Internet governance in the (so-called) Russian case. First Monday. doi: 10.5210/fm.v26i5.11687.

Koskela, H. (2006). ‘The other side of surveillance’: Webcams, power and agency. In: Lyon D (ed.) Theorizing Surveillance: The Panopticon and Beyond. Cullompton: Willan Publishing, 163–181. doi: 10.4324/9781843926818.

Kostka, G., Steinacker, L., & Meckel, M. (2023). Under big brother's watchful eye: Cross-country attitudes toward facial recognition technology. Government Information Quarterly, 40(1), 101761. doi: 10.1016/j.giq.2022.101761.

Lauer, J. (2017). Creditworthy: A history of consumer surveillance and financial identity in America. Columbia University Press.

Laufer, R.S., & Wolfe. M. (1977). Privacy as a concept and a social issue: a multidimensional development theory, Journal of Social Issues, 33(3), 23–42. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1977.tb01880.x.

Laumer, S., Eckhardt, A. (2012). Why Do People Reject Technologies: A Review of User Resistance Theories. In: Editors: Yogesh K. Dwivedi, Michael R. Wade, Scott L. Schneberger (eds.) Information Systems Theory: Explaining and Predicting Our Digital Society, 1, 63–86. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6108-2.

Leckner, S. (2018). Sceptics and supporters of corporate use of behavioural data: a study of attitudes towards informational privacy and internet surveillance in Sweden. Northern Lights, 16(1): 113–132. doi: 10.1386/nl.16.1.113_1.

Levada-Center. (2024, July 16). Muscovites' views on the city's main problems and city programs. https://www.levada.ru/2024/07/16/predstavleniya-moskvichej-o-glavnyh-problemah-goroda-i-gorodskih-programmah/

Liang, F., Das, V., Kostyuk, N., & Hussain, M. M. (2018). Constructing a data‐driven society: China's social credit system as a state surveillance infrastructure. Policy & Internet, 10(4), 415–453. doi: 10.1002/poi3.183.

Lutz, C., Hoffmann, C. P., & Ranzini, G. (2020). Data capitalism and the user: an exploration of privacy cynicism in Germany. New Media & Society, 22(7), 1168–1187. doi: 10.1177/1461444820912544.

Lyon, D. (2005). Surveillance as social sorting: Computer codes and mobile bodies. In Surveillance as social sorting (pp. 27–44). Routledge.

Lyon, D. (2014). Surveillance, Snowden, and big data: Capacities, consequences, critique. Big data & society, 1(2), 2053951714541861. doi: 10.1177/2053951714541861.

Lyon, D. (2018). God’s Eye: A Reason for Hope. Surveillance & Society, 16(4), 546–553. doi: 10.24908/ss.v16i4.12858.

Lyon, D. (2022). Pandemic surveillance. Polity Press.

MacKinnon, R. (2011). Liberation Technology: China's “Networked Authoritarianism”. Journal of democracy, 22(2), 32–46. doi: 10.1353/jod.2011.0033.

Macnish, K. (2020). Mass Surveillance: A Private Affair?. Moral Philosophy and Politics, 7. doi: 10.1515/mopp-2019-0025.

Mael, F. A., Connerley, M., & Morath, R. A. (1996). None of your business: Parameters of biodata invasiveness. Personnel Psychology, 49(3), 613–650. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1996.tb01587.x.

Markos, E., Milne, G. R., & Peltier, J. W. (2017). Information sensitivity and willingness to provide continua: a comparative privacy study of the United States and Brazil. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 36(1), 79–96. doi: 10.1509/jppm.15.159.

Martin, J. D., Naqvi, S. S. & Narwahg, I. (2020). Attitudes about censorship and Internet surveillance among South Asians and nationals in the Arab Gulf: predictors of digital self-expression values. International Communication Research Journal, 55(1), 21–38.

Martin, J. D., Naqvi, S. S. & Schoenbach, K. (2019). Attribute substitution and stereotypes about the online Arab public sphere: predictors of concerns about Internet surveillance in five Arab countries. New Media & Society, 21(4), 1085–1104. doi: 10.1177/1461444818821369.

Martin, A. K., & Donovan, K. P. (2015). New surveillance technologies and their publics: A case of biometrics. Public Understanding of Science, 24(7), 842–857. doi: 10.1177/0963662513514173.

Marx, G. T. (2015). Surveillance Studies. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, edited by J. D. Wright. E-book: Elsevier, 733–741.

Maytin, L., Maytin, J., Agarwal, P., Krenitsky, A., Krenitsky, J., & Epstein, R. S. (2021). Attitudes and perceptions toward COVID-19 digital surveillance: survey of young adults in the United States. JMIR formative research, 5(1), e23000. doi: 10.2196/23000.

Mehrabian, A., & Stefl, C. A. (1995). Basic temperament components of loneliness, shyness, and conformity. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 23(3), 253–263. doi: 10.2224/sbp.1995.23.3.253.

Milne, G. R., Pettinico, G., Hajjat, F. M., & Markos, E. (2017). Information sensitivity typology: Mapping the degree and type of risk consumers perceive in personal data sharing. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 51(1), 133–161. doi: 10.1111/joca.12111.

Miltgen, C. L., & Smith, H. J. (2015). Exploring information privacy regulation, risks, trust, and behavior. Information & Management, 52(6), 741–759. doi: 10.1016/j.im.2015.06.006.

Monahan, T., Phillips, D. & Murakami Wood, D. (2010). Surveillance and Empowerment. Surveillance & Society, 8(2), 106–112. doi: 10.24908/ss.v8i2.3480.

Offermann-van Heek, J., Arning, K., & Ziefle, M. (2019). All eyes on you! impact of location, camera type, and privacy-security-trade-off on the acceptance of surveillance technologies. In Smart Cities, Green Technologies, and Intelligent Transport Systems: 6th International Conference, SMARTGREENS 2017, and Third International Conference, VEHITS 2017, Porto, Portugal, April 22-24, 2017, Revised Selected Papers 6 (pp. 131-149). Springer International Publishing.

Oulasvirta, A., Suomalainen, T., Hamari, J., Lampinen, A., & Karvonen, K. (2014). Transparency of intentions decreases privacy concerns in ubiquitous surveillance. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 633–638. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0585.

Park, M., Chai, S., Azyabi, N. G., Lou, L., Koh, J., Park, J., & Rho, H. (2018). The value of personal information: An exploratory study for types of personal information and its value. Asia Pacific Journal of Information Systems, 28(3–2018).

Patil, S., Patruni, B., Potoglou, D., & Robinson, N. (2016). Public preference for data privacy–A pan-European study on metro/train surveillance. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 92, 145–161. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2016.08.004.

Patil, S., Potoglou, D., Lu, H., Robinson, N., & Burge, P. (2014). Trade-off across privacy, security and surveillance in the case of metro travel in Europe. Transportation research procedia, 1(1), 121–132. doi: j.trpro.2014.07.013

Popescu, M., Baruh, L., Messaris, P., & Humphreys, L. (2017). Consumer surveillance and distributive privacy harms in the age of big data. Digital Media. Transformations in Human Communication, 313–327.

Potoglou, D., Dunkerley, F., Patil, S., & Robinson, N. (2017). Public preferences for internet surveillance, data retention and privacy enhancing services: Evidence from a pan-European study. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 811–825. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.007.

Potoglou, D., Robinson, N., Patil, S., Dunkerley, F., Fox, J., Lu, H. & Patruni, B. (2014). Privacy, Security and Surveillance: New Insights into Preferences of European Citizens (March 31, 2014). 2014 TPRC Conference Paper. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2418346.

Ramos, L. F. M. (2020). Evaluating privacy during the COVID-19 public health emergency: the case of facial recognition technologies. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance (ICEGOV '20), 176–179. doi: 10.1145/3428502.3428526.

Raz, A., & Hashiloni-Dolev, Y. (2022). “Donating with eyes shut”: attitudes regarding DNA donation to a large-scale biobank in Israel. New Genetics and Society, 41(1), 47–65. doi: 10.1080/14636778.2021.2007066.

RBС. (2024, January 12). Doctors' appointments in Moscow clinics will be audio-recorded. https://www.rbc.ru/society/12/01/2024/65a1695a9a79472818ec0179

Richards, N. M. (2012). The dangers of surveillance. Harv. L. Rev., 126, 1934.

Richter, G., Borzikowsky, C., Lieb, W., Schreiber, S., Krawczak, M., & Buyx, A. (2019). Patient views on research use of clinical data without consent: legal, but also acceptable?. European Journal of Human Genetics, 27(6), 841–847. doi: 10.1038/s41431-019-0340-6.

Robinson, C. (2017). Disclosure of personal data in ecommerce: A cross-national comparison of Estonia and the United States. Telematics and Informatics, 34(2), 569–582. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2016.09.006.

Ross, S., Serebrennikov, D., Minaeva, E., & Netyaev, V. (2024). Surveillance Technologies in Autocratic Regimes: The Moscow AI Experiment and its Implications for Crime Control and Police Effectiveness. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4789135.

Rossi, P. H., & Anderson, A. B. (1982). Measuring social judgments: The factorial survey approach.

Rumbold, J. M., & Pierscionek, B. K. (2017). What are data? A categorization of the data sensitivity spectrum. Big Data Research, 12, 49–59. doi: 10.1016/j.bdr.2017.11.001.

Schoenherr, J. R. (2021). Adoption of surveillance technologies: data openness, privacy, and cultural tightness. IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society, 2(3), 122–127. doi: 10.1109/TTS.2021.3076136.

Schomakers, E. M., Lidynia, C., Müllmann, D., & Ziefle, M. (2019). Internet users’ perceptions of information sensitivity–insights from Germany. International Journal of Information Management, 46, 142–150. doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.11.018.

Školník, M., & Haman, M. (2024). Drawing the line: public attitudes towards warranted and unwarranted government surveillance in European countries. Security Journal, 1–16. doi: 10.1057/s41284-024-00426-4.

Sprengholz, P., Betsch, C., & Böhm, R. (2021). Reactance revisited: Consequences of mandatory and scarce vaccination in the case of COVID‐19. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 13(4), 986–995. doi: 10.1111/aphw.12285.

Steinfeld, N. (2017). Track me, track me not: Support and consent to state and private sector surveillance. Telematics and Informatics, 34(8), 1663–1672. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2017.07.012

Stoddart, E. (2012). A surveillance of care. In: The Routledge Handbook of Surveillance Studies, eds K.S. Ball, K.D. Haggerty and D.Lyon, 369–376. London: Routledge.

Styvén, M., Wallström, Å., Engström, A., Salehi-Sangari, E. (2011). “IT’s Complicated…”: Influence of Perceived Sacrifice and Trust on eService Adoption. In: Janssen, M., Scholl, H.J., Wimmer, M.A., Tan, Yh. (eds) Electronic Government. EGOV 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6846. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-22878-0_10.

Summers, C., Griffiths, F., Cave, J., & Panesar, A. (2022). Understanding the security and privacy concerns about the use of identifiable health data in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: Survey study of public attitudes toward COVID-19 and data-sharing. JMIR Formative Research, 6(7), e29337. https://preprints.jmir.org/preprint/29337

Svenonius, O., & Björklund, F. (2018). Explaining attitudes to secret surveillance in post-communist societies. East European Politics, 34(2), 123–151. doi: 10.1080/21599165.2018.1454314.

Swire, P. P. (1999). Financial Privacy and the Theory of High-Tech Government Surveillance, 77 Wash. U. L. Q. 461 (1999). Available at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_lawreview/vol77/iss2/6

Teo, T. S. H., Srivastava S. C., Jiang L. I. (2008). Trust and Electronic Government Success: An Empirical Study. Journal of Management Information Systems, 25(3), 99–132. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40398940.

Thompson, N., McGill, T., Bunn, A., & Alexander, R. (2020). Cultural factors and the role of privacy concerns in acceptance of government surveillance. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 71(9), 1129–1142. doi: 10.1002/asi.24372.

Tremblay-Cantin, C. A., Mellouli, S., Cheikh-Ammar, M., Khechine, H. (2023). E-government Service Adoption by Citizens: A Literature Review and a High-level Model of Influential Factors. Digital Government: Research and Practice, 4(1), 1–24. doi: 10.1145/3580369.

Trüdinger, E. M., & Steckermeier, L. C. (2017). Trusting and controlling? Political trust, information and acceptance of surveillance policies: The case of Germany. Government Information Quarterly, 34(3), 421–433. doi: 10.1016/j.giq.2017.07.003.

Ullrich, P. & Wollinger, G. (2011). A Surveillance Studies Perspective on Protest Policing. The Case of Video Surveillance of Demonstrations in Germany. Interface. A journal for and about social movements, 3, 12–38. doi: 10.14279/depositonce-4563.

Van den Broek, T., Ooms, M., Friedewald, M., van Lieshout, M., & Rung, S. (2017). Privacy and security: Citizens’ desires for an equal footing. In Surveillance, privacy and security (pp. 15-35). Routledge.

Van Heek, J., Aming, K., & Ziefle, M. (2016). “How fear of crime affects needs for privacy & safety”: Acceptance of surveillance technologies in smart cities. In 2016 5th international conference on smart cities and green ICT systems (SMARTGREENS) (pp. 1-12). doi: 10.5220/0005761900320043.

Wang, T., Duong, T. D., & Chen, C. C. (2016). Intention to disclose personal information via mobile applications: A privacy calculus perspective. International journal of information management, 36(4), 531–542. doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2016.03.003.

Westin, A. F. (1967). Privacy and Freedom, New York: Atheneum.

Xu, H., & Dinev, T. (2012). The security-liberty balance: individuals’ attitudes towards internet government surveillance. Electronic Government, An International Journal, 9(1), 46–63. doi: 10.1504/EG.2012.044778.

Yasuoka, M., Meyerhoff Nielsen, M., & Iversen, K. E. (2022). The Exercise of Mandate: How Mandatory Service Implementation- Promoted the Use of E-Government Services in Denmark. . In T. X. Bui (Ed.), Proceedings of the 55th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, HICSS 2022 (pp. 2658-2667). HICSS. doi: 10.24251/HICSS.2022.330v.

Zhang, B., Kreps, S., McMurry, N., & McCain, R. M. (2020a). Americans’ perceptions of privacy and surveillance in the COVID-19 pandemic. Plos one, 15(12), e0242652. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242652.

Zhang, S., Feng, Y., Das, A., Bauer, L., Cranor, L. F., & Sadeh, N. (2020b). Understanding people’s privacy attitudes towards video analytics technologies. Proceedings of the FTC PrivacyCon, 1–18.

Ziller, C., & Helbling, M. (2021). Public support for state surveillance. European Journal of Political Research, 60(4), 994–1006. doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12424.

Zuboff, S. (2015). Big other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization. Journal of Information Technology, 30(1), 75–89. doi: 10.1057/jit.2015.5.